This post is further extension of previous post"Understand The Automic Structure.....".Here you will find the information about energy band of an atom.

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In the field of Electronics Engineering,the study of atomic structure is most important in view to understand the conductivity material etc...If you know the atomic structure of any metal then you better know the electrical conductivity of that metal.That will help you to choose as conductors,semi conductors or
insulators.

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The Vacuum Tubes will always give satisfactory performance in a Circuit if they are operated under proper condition.Actually this is the basic requirement
of any Electronics Devices or Circuit.We have to take due care about the requirement of such Devices.Any deviation may result in the damage of the Vacuum

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For many applications,we required d.c. supply.Due to an economical proposition,the Electric Power is almost exclusively generated,transmitted and
distributed in the form of Alternating Current.

For the successful operation of all Electron Tubes and Semiconductor Devices d.c. supply is required.Batteries can not be used for the purpose as they are

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An Electronic Device,in which the flow of Electrons is through a Vaccum is known as Vaccum Tube.

A Vaccum Tube usually contains a Cathode which is called as Electron Emitter,an Anode which is called as plate (which is electron Collector) and one or
more Electrodes called as Grids,for controlling the flow of Electrons between the Cathode and Anode.

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The substance used for Electron Emission is known as an Emitter.An Emitter should have the following Properties.

01)High Melting Point:-

As Electron Emission takes place at very High Temperatures,therefore,the substance used as Emitter should have High Melting Point.

02)Low Work Function:-

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The substance used for Electron Emission is known as Emitter or Cathode.The Cathode is heated in an evacuated space to emit Electrons.

As Cathode is sealed in Vaccum,therefore,the most convenient way to heat it is Electrically.The heating processes may be done by two methods.The
Thermionic Cathode are devided into two types,

01)Directly Heated Cathode
02)Indirectly Heated Cathode

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From my previous post,you come to know about "Emission of Electrons".This Electron Emission can be classified in four different types.The details about that
four types are as below.

The External Energy which is used for Emission of Electrons,may come from variety of sources such as Heat Energy,Energy stored in Electric Field,Light

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At Room Temperature,the Thermal Energy in the Conductor is adequate to break the bonds of the Valence Electrons and leave them unattached to any one
Nucleus.These Unbound Electrons moves at random within the Conductor and are known as Free Electrons.

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The Branch of Engineering which deals with Current Conduction through a Vaccume or Gas or Semiconductor is known as Electronics.

Electronics mainly deals with Electronics Devices and their utilization.Such Devices have valuable properties which enable them to function and behave as
the friend of Human today.

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Thermistor is a means of a term "Thermal Resistars".Thermistors are generally made from Semi-Conductor Materials.Most Thermistors have Negative
Coefficient of Temperature Resistance i.e.Their Resistance decrease with increase in Temperature.

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A Hygrometer measures the Value of Humidity Directly.Generally,the output of Hygrometer is used to indicate Relative Humidity.

Several Material exhibit changes in Electric Properties that are caused by Humidity.These are frequently used in Transducers that are designed and
Calibrated to read Relative Humidity Directly.

01)Resistive Hygrometer:-

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The Liquid Levels can be measure by different methods but following two are more important from the subject point of view.

01)Electrical Methods:-
The Direct Conversion to Liquid Level position to Electrical Signal is used in many instances.The measurements is generally done by two conversions,so
that the Liquid Level is determined indirectly.

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In order to overcome some of the diffculties,A.C.Tachometer Generators are used.The Tachometer has Rotating Magnet which may be either Permanent
Magnet or an Electromagnet.The Coil is wound on the Stator and therefore the problems associated with Commutator (as in D.C.Tachometer) are absent.

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Before going to Tachometer Generators we will see about Angular Velocity in short.

In many cases the only way to measure Linear Velocity is to convert it into Angular Velocity.For example a Speedometer uses the wheels ratational speed
as a measure of Linear road speed.

The measurment of Angular Speed may be made with Tachometers which may be either Mechanical or Electrical type.

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In last topic,we have discussed about Digital Instruments and Analog Instruments.In this post we will see about Digital Systems and Microprocessors used for
measurment system and control.

The major reasons for Digital and Microprocessor are.

01)Stability and accuracy of control.
02)Flexibility.
03)Lower cost per function.
04)Greater reliability and equipment life.

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Electronics Voltmeters,Ammeters and Ohmmeters are use Amplifires,Rectifires and other ansiliary circuit to produce a current proportional to the quantity
being measured.This current is measured by PMMC (Permanent magnetic moving Coil) instrument.

This is Analog type instrument.Now an Electronic Instruments are use Digital read out systems and in that case they are called "Digital Electronic

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An Electronic instrumentation system consists numbers of components to perform a measurment and record its result.Now a days a generalized measurment
system consists of Three major components.

01) An input device
02) A signal conditioning or processing device
03) An output device

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Generally many people knowns about Cathod Ray Oscilloscope (CRO).Because the CRO is a very useful and versatile laboratory instrument used for display,
measurment and analysis of waveforms and other phenomena in eletrical and electronics circuit.No other instrument used in electronics industries is as

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An electronics engineer comes in contact with a large variety material in the manufacturing of a apparatus,electronic machines & electronics devices,radio,
TV,electronic gear,automatic & remote control euqipment.In transmission line design,we must have knowledge material.In computor memory device too,

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